218

Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 13, Nos. 3/4, 2013

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure
through the lens of the psychological continuum
model
Tara Q. Mahoney*
Department of Sport Management,
State University of New York at Cortland,
Professional Studies Building, Room 1111,
P.O. Box 2000, Cortland, NY 13045-0900, USA
E-mail: tara.mahoney@cortland.edu
*Corresponding author

Marion E. Hambrick and Per G. Svensson
University of Louisville,
104 Studio Arts/HPES,
Louisville, KY 40292, USA
E-mail: marion.hambrick@louisville.edu
E-mail: per.svensson@louisville.edu

Matthew H. Zimmerman
School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science,
Ball State University,
Health and Physical Activity Building (HP),
Room 360, Muncie, IN 47306, USA
E-mail: mhzimmerman@bsu.edu
Abstract: The Funk and James (2001, 2006) psychological continuum model
(PCM) suggests that sport consumers move from awareness and attraction to
attachment and allegiance, and that most sport consumers first learn about
sports via reference groups and the media. However, niche sports typically
receive less media coverage than mainstream sports (Greenhalgh et al., 2011;
Puchan, 2004). These sports must thus seek other avenues of promotion,
including the internet and social media, to attract and retain consumers. This
study explored the promotional use of online video aggregation site
YouTube among five emergent niche sports – slacklining, adventure racing,
longboarding, cyclocross and parkour – using the PCM as the theoretical
framework. The majority of videos were categorised as awareness and
attraction. The findings of this study showed the importance of online videos
among niche sport organisations as a tool for providing information about their
sports while building and cultivating relationships with consumers.
Keywords: niche sport; social media; YouTube; psychological continuum
model; PCM.

Copyright © 2013 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

219

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Mahoney, T.Q.,
Hambrick, M.E., Svensson, P.G. and Zimmerman, M.H. (2013) ‘Examining
emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure through the lens of the
psychological continuum model’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing,
Vol. 13, Nos. 3/4, pp.218–238.
Biographical notes: Tara Q. Mahoney is an Assistant Professor at the State
University of New York at Cortland with research interests in social media and
charity sport participation.
Marion E. Hambrick is an Assistant Professor at the University of Louisville
with research interests in social media and diffusion of innovations.
Per G. Svensson is a doctoral student at the University of Louisville with
research interests in sport for development and peace, and new media and
technologies.
Matthew H. Zimmerman is an Instructor at Ball State University with research
interests in social media, specifically YouTube as a communication platform in
the sport industry.
This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled ‘Examining
emergent niche sports YouTube exposure through the lens of the psychological
continuum model’ presented at the Sixth Summit of Communication and Sport,
Austin, Texas, February 2013.

1

Introduction

Niche sports are described as “not mainstream or traditional and often include risk,
danger or unconventional rules and/or techniques” [Bennett et al., (2002) p.175], and as a
result they typically receive less media coverage and fewer sponsorship opportunities
than mainstream sports (Greenhalgh et al., 2011; Puchan, 2004). Sports under the niche
sports umbrella include snowboarding, skateboarding and mountain biking, and
participants and spectators gravitate towards these sports because of the lifestyle
element – viewing their sport participation and fandom as an important component of
their lives (Puchan, 2004). The sports face steep competition from more mainstream
options such as professional baseball, basketball, football and ice hockey, and often
experience challenges with attracting participants, spectators, corporate sponsors and
mass media (Greenhalgh et al., 2011).
Turning away from traditional media outlets, some niche sport organisations view the
internet as a more viable alternative (Puchan, 2004). The internet has advanced
from one-way communication to the simultaneous consumption and production of
user-generated content with the emergence of interactive Web 2.0 technologies (Janusz,
2009; Mellow, 2008; Walther et al., 2010) and social media platforms, blogs and wikis,
which have combined to transform online communication. YouTube represents one of the
many social media platforms that have emerged in recent years, and can be used for
entertainment purposes and social interaction (Haridakis and Hanson, 2009; Juhasz,
2009). The site provides a free, interactive and accessible platform for individuals and

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T.Q. Mahoney et al.

organisations to view, create and share videos (Hanson et al., 2010). YouTube attracts
more than one billion monthly unique users, and they watch approximately four billion
hours of video content each month (YouTube, 2013).
While many YouTube videos exist for entertainment purposes, the site can also be
used to inform the public about a sport, organisation or event (Waters and Jones, 2011).
In recent years, more sport organisations have embraced YouTube as part of their
integrated marketing communication strategies (Broughton, 2012), including smaller
niche sport organisations. For example, the United States Ski and Snowboard Association
(USSA) created a partnership with YouTube, and launched the USSA Network YouTube
channel to increase sponsorship opportunities and maximise consumer awareness of its
digital content. The USSA (2012) network provides users with live event coverage,
behind the scenes access to athletes and lifestyle stories, as well as news stories and
highlights. The USSA entered into a sponsorship agreement with YouTube, and other
national governing bodies such as USA Gymnastics and USA Wrestling have signed
similar agreements (Mickle, 2012). The organisations retain a certain number of
protected sponsorship categories, and split the revenues from advertisements sold by the
YouTube sales team on their respective YouTube networks (Mickle, 2012). The
partnership agreement contains an opportunity for the USSA to gain additional revenue
from YouTube, if the channel generates significant viewership and site traffic (Maletz,
2012).
YouTube represents a way to promote sports that do not enjoy significant mass media
attention (Zimmerman et al., 2012), and can be utilised as a platform for individuals to
learn about new sports and become more identified with sports for which they already
have a connection. This increased awareness and attraction are reflected in the
psychological continuum model (PCM), which is commonly used in sport management
literature to identify the psychological commitment levels of spectators (e.g., Funk and
James, 2001, 2006) and participants (e.g., Filo et al., 2008, 2009) to a sport, sport
organisation or sporting event. The PCM can help sport organisations identify and
classify the psychological connections consumers have with their sport products. This
activity becomes particularly relevant for niche sport organisations that often strive to
attract and retain consumers, and face steep competition from more mainstream sport
options (Greenhalgh et al., 2011; Puchan, 2004). Funk and James (2001, 2006)
specifically noted that the internet and reference groups play a role in an individual’s
awareness of sports and influence the psychological connection the individual feels about
a sport. However, researchers have yet to use the PCM in a communication context,
examining the internet or reference groups through social media platforms. For this
reason, the current study utilised the PCM framework to explore how niche sport
organisations use YouTube videos to market their products and interact with current and
potential sport consumers.

2

Niche sport organisations and YouTube

Increasingly, more niche sport organisations use YouTube as a vehicle to promote their
products and share connections with fans (Broughton, 2012). This activity can be
examined through the PCM theoretical framework, which addresses how individuals first
learn about and then consume sports (Funk, 2008; Funk and James, 2001, 2006).

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

221

2.1 Theoretical framework
The PCM framework theorises that sport consumers advance through four stages as they
interact with a sport product:
a

awareness – express a realisation that a sport product exists

b

attraction – exhibit a preference for the sport product

c

attachment – give emotional, symbolic and functional meaning to the sport product

d

allegiance – express loyalty toward the sport product (Funk, 2008; Funk and James,
2001, 2006).

The model represents a “hierarchical gradient in the psychological connection that
individuals feel toward events/activities” in that sport consumers advance through the
stages over time [Filo et al., (2009) p.362]. In the initial awareness stage, sport consumers
first learn about a sport, sport organisation or sporting event – most commonly from
friends, family and mass media. Consumers in the attraction stage display an interest in
and psychological connection to the sport product, and are typically influenced by its
benefits (e.g., entertainment, escape). The attachment stage is where the sport product
takes on a stronger internal psychological meaning for the individual. Finally, in the
allegiance stage, sport consumers express their most intense psychological commitment,
exhibiting increased loyalty in their attitudes and behaviours toward the sport product
(Funk and James, 2001). Consumers advance up the gradient as their psychological
commitment to a sport becomes stronger. In addition, an individual can also move down
the PCM ladder as their commitment fluctuates.
Sport organisations ultimately aim to foster allegiance among consumers (Funk and
James, 2001). Previous researchers used the PCM in the context of passive (e.g., Funk
et al., 2009; Funk et al., 2006) and active (e.g., Filo et al., 2008, 2009, 2011; Funk et al.,
2007) sport participants. In terms of passive participation, Funk et al. (2006) examined
spectator attendance patterns for a niche sport league – the Japan Professional Soccer
League (J. League) – and found external factors (i.e., National Sport Lottery, hosting the
World Cup) had significant influences on moving individuals from the awareness to the
attraction stage. The researchers found that many individuals first became aware of the
J. League through the heightened media attention around Japan hosting the World Cup in
2002. This heightened awareness influenced spectator attendance rates and attraction to
watch other J. League events in the future. The researchers also noted that sport
marketers and managers should promote those external factors in order to see greater
success in gaining behavioural loyalty with consumers (Funk et al., 2006).
Filo et al. (2008) also utilised the PCM when examining niche sports; however, they
focused on active participation, mainly in charity cycling events. The researchers found
that the motives to participate in the sport and contribute to the charity influenced event
attraction, and the individual’s interest in contributing to a charity primarily influenced
the attachment phase (Filo et al., 2008). The PCM framework suggests watching,
participating and engaging in sport-related consumption behaviours progress along a
continuum (Funk et al., 2009). Additionally, “research indicates that reference groups and
mass media are important socialising agents that influence awareness and sport
consumption related activities through a social learning process” [Funk (2008) p.92].
Reference groups refer to family, friends, work, internet, celebrities, experts or anyone

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T.Q. Mahoney et al.

that may provide information or awareness about sport objects (e.g., sport, team, and
event). In the absence of mainstream media attention, which many niche sports lack,
reference groups may serve as a prime avenue for individuals to learn about sports and
recreational activities. Social media has enhanced the interconnectedness of individuals
and expanded the role of reference groups as socialisation agents, potentially influencing
individuals’ awareness and commitment levels (Funk, 2008; Funk and James, 2001,
2006).

2.2 Niche sport organisations
Niche sports are important to fans – both participants and spectators – that view the
sports as an essential part of their daily lives (Miloch and Lambrecht, 2006; Puchan,
2004). Related niche sport organisations can use the PCM framework to better
understand sport consumers, and help them advance through the stages towards
allegiance. Researchers have studied niche sports in a variety of contexts. Greenhalgh
et al. (2011) examined Minor League Baseball, Women’s National Basketball
Association, Arena Football League and Major League Soccer (MLS), comparing the
four sport organisations to the National Football League. The study identified attributes
distinguishing niche sports from their more mainstream counterparts. Accessibility, or the
ability to watch and access information about the sport, represented a major factor
attracting sports fans to niche sports. The researchers concluded that niche sport
organisations should create more open environments where fans can interact with the
athletes and organisations, in ways not commonly found among more mainstream sports.
Niche sport organisations can promote this accessibility to attract and retain sport
consumers, thereby expanding the sport’s fan base and promoting related consumption
behaviours.
Increasing audience sizes benefits niche sport organisations and their corporate
sponsors. Bennett et al. (2002) hypothesised a positive connection between a sport
consumer’s familiarity with a sport and related consumption behaviours, and the
researchers measured the effectiveness of sponsorships featured during niche sporting
events such as ESPN’s Winter and Summer X Games. Spectators correctly identified
sponsors such as Mountain Dew and ESPN, and said they would purchase an event
sponsor’s products (Bennett et al., 2002). Miloch and Lambrecht (2006) also assessed
corporate sponsorship awareness at a niche sporting event, and found that half of the
participants, spectators and volunteers recalled at least one sponsor. They were more
likely to purchase a sponsored product as a way to express their appreciation for the event
sponsors. Niche sport organisations can benefit from exposing potential and current
viewers to their sports, and this exposure can lead to positive sentiments and purchasing
behaviours (Bennett et al., 2002; Miloch and Lambrecht, 2006).
Niche sport organisations can establish and strengthen connections with fans by
increasing accessibility, and researchers have proposed that offering more information
and content via social media platforms can help achieve this objective (Greenhalgh et al.,
2011; Puchan, 2004). Despite receiving limited coverage in mainstream media outlets,
niche sports can use these platforms to connect with fans and build communities around
their sports. “The internet is a medium that fits the overall ethos of a ‘lifestyle sport’ and
underlines its niche and cult nature” [Puchan, (2004) p.176]. YouTube and other
platforms can create a community for fans who embrace niche sports and the
accompanying lifestyles, and the platforms offer a unique opportunity for sport

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

223

organisations to reach their consumers in a cost-effective manner. Their interactive nature
could help niche sport organisations form a community of participants and spectators
around a given sport, potentially increasing awareness of the sport itself (Puchan, 2004;
Zimmerman et al., 2012).
Social media platforms such as YouTube are increasingly used by sport organisations
to complement more traditional forms of marketing and communication channels.
Previous sport-related research examined the role of blogs (Dittmore et al., 2008;
Sanderson, 2010), Twitter (Hambrick et al., 2010; Pegoraro, 2010) and Facebook
(Wallace et al., 2011; Waters et al., 2010) in the sport industry. Far fewer studies,
however, have analysed YouTube (Zimmerman et al., 2012).

2.3 YouTube and niche sports
From its beginnings in 2005, YouTube attracted millions of viewers in its first year as an
online outlet to share videos. YouTube is now an entertainment destination for users all
over the world (Breen, 2007), attracting over one billion unique users each month in 2013
(YouTube, 2013). Besides entertainment, YouTube offers informative content, including
how-to videos on topics as wide-ranging as cooking and skateboarding (Chau, 2010).
YouTube records and analyses the number of views and comments each video receives,
and sorts videos for the average user according to popularity (i.e., high numbers of views
and comments) (Chau, 2010). The social media platform’s international reach and ease of
use led one researcher to refer to this site as ‘NicheTube’, where the medium’s sheer size
creates a place for every type of content imaginable (Juhasz, 2009).
YouTube allows users to subscribe to other users’ content, as well as create an
individual profile that tracks videos viewed and suggests potential content of interest
(Chau, 2010). YouTube’s comment sections, as well as ‘like’ and ‘dislike’ buttons, create
an opportunity for users to interact with the posted content, and with each other (Walther
et al., 2010). The YouTube platform is user friendly, making it easy for individuals to
both upload their own videos and view others’ contributions to the platform (Breen,
2007). In addition to uploading and viewing content through YouTube, individuals have
the ability to interact with one another through the comment sections of each video, and
share the videos through other social media platforms such as Facebook or Twitter
(Haridakis and Hanson, 2009). Many videos exist for entertainment purposes; however,
the site can also be used to inform the public regarding an organisation or event. As such,
YouTube may represent a communication opportunity for niche sport organisations that
do not enjoy a significant amount of mainstream coverage (Zimmerman et al., 2012).
Demonstrating the ubiquitousness of the platform, YouTube has also been used in
attempts to employ social marketing. For example, Richardson et al. (2011) examined
smoking cessation videos on YouTube and categorised videos based on producer (i.e.,
who created the videos) and premise (i.e., primary message of each video). The
researchers identified the majority of the videos as commercially produced (62%) and the
remainder as personally produced (38%). Commercially produced videos were those
created by an organisation, whereas personally produced videos were created by
individuals. In addition, the researchers found a wide range of premise categories,
including anti-smoking messages, advertisements for products to help people quit
smoking, personal experiences with quitting smoking and advice on how to quit smoking.
They also noted the difference between the premise categories of commercially produced

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T.Q. Mahoney et al.

and personally produced videos. They found commercially produced videos to distribute
information about the negative health effects of smoking and promote products to quit
smoking. Personally produced videos, however, focused on personal experiences with
quitting smoking and advice for others going through the process. Their study
demonstrated the range of possibilities for YouTube content.
The opportunity for organisations to leverage YouTube for both media consumption
and production has made the site popular among its users. The combination of media
creation and social networking makes YouTube ideal for a younger generation of
consumers (Chau, 2010). YouTube’s presence in mainstream society – and as a medium
perceived to be favoured by younger online users – was exemplified when the site was
utilised as an official component of candidate debates during the 2008 US presidential
election (McKinney and Rill, 2009). Cable News Network (CNN) moderated a pair of
events during which user-submitted videos featured questions for individuals seeking the
Democratic and Republican nominations. The YouTube debates allowed citizens to ask
questions and become more involved in the political process, as opposed to the previous
model of watching a journalist ask candidates questions (Stromer-Galley and Bryant,
2011). The 2008 campaign was the first to feel the effects of social media, with interested
parties learning more about candidates and issues through the use of sites including
Facebook, MySpace and YouTube (Hanson et al., 2010).
Despite its popularity and range of uses, to date only one study has examined
YouTube usage in a sport context. Zimmerman et al. (2012) explored MLS’s use of
YouTube videos to provide fans with content featuring the league, teams and athletes.
Most of the published videos focused on game highlights from around the league as well
as individual player and team footage. Popular players such as David Beckham received
more coverage along with teams such as the Los Angeles Galaxy and Chicago Fire. The
authors asserted that the focus on popular players and teams represented a positive
agenda, and supported the league’s use of YouTube videos to provide content about the
organisation, teams and players in an efficient and low-cost format.
The current study examined niche sports and their use of YouTube through the PCM
theoretical framework. The purpose of this study was to explore how niche sport
organisations use YouTube videos to market their products and interact with current and
potential sport consumers. More specifically, this study explored how the four PCM
stages – awareness, attraction, attachment and allegiance – were reflected in YouTube
videos depicting emergent niche sports. The study addressed the following research
questions:
RQ1 Who creates the emergent niche sport YouTube videos?
RQ2 What is the primary message of the emergent niche sport videos?
RQ3 What are the similarities and differences in PCM stages represented among the
five emergent niche sport videos?

3

Method

The study used content analysis to explore niche sport YouTube videos, similar to the
method used by Zimmerman et al. (2012) to assess MLS videos. Other sport-related
social media studies have used content analysis to examine how sport organisations use

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

225

Facebook (Wallace et al., 2011; Waters et al., 2010) and Twitter (Hambrick et al., 2010;
Pegoraro, 2010) to connect with consumers. This exploratory study used content analysis
to learn more about niche sports and how they use YouTube videos to promote their
products.

3.1 Sample
Niche sports often involve non-traditional rules and techniques (Bennett et al., 2002), and
sports such as rock climbing, triathlon, skateboarding, cycling and gymnastics represent
prevalent niche sports. This study further delineated niche sports to examine emergent
sports, which we defined as a subset, or offset, of an existing niche sport. The researchers
examined five emergent niche sports – slacklining, adventure racing, longboarding,
cyclocross and parkour – and their respective YouTube videos. The five emergent sports
represent a ‘niche-of-a-niche sport’, and as such may face even greater challenges raising
awareness about and attracting spectators and participants to their sports. Descriptions of
the sports examined are found below.
Slacklining emerged from the sport of rock climbing, and involves balancing,
walking or performing tricks on flat climbing webbing (Longman, 2012). The webbing is
attached between two trees or other stationary objects, and can be suspended anywhere
from a few feet to over a hundred feet above ground. Adventure racing is similar to
triathlon, in that athletes participate in a combination of sports such as mountain biking,
orienteering, canoeing and hiking (Kaplan, 2011). Emphasis is often placed on teamwork
as athletes form groups and compete in a diverse selection of events. Longboarding
evolved from skateboarding; the primary difference between the two sports is equipment,
where longboards are wider and longer than traditional skateboards (Higgins, 2010).
Some participants use them for transportation, while others participate in downhill and
slalom competitions. Cyclocross is an offshoot of cycling, and is frequently described as
‘steeplechase on bikes’ (Barry, 2008). The sport requires cyclists to ride and run with
their bikes, while navigating obstacles on off-road terrain. Finally, parkour is a form of
gymnastics, where athletes run, jump and tumble – using outdoor elements such as stairs,
railings and other obstacles to perform a variety of tricks.

3.2 Data collection
The researchers examined the top 50 most relevant videos featured on YouTube for each
of the five sports, for a total of 250 videos. Zimmerman et al. (2012) used a similar sized
sample in their study of YouTube videos. YouTube users can explore the vast array of
videos through a search function, which automatically sorts videos by relevance (Sahlin
and Botello, 2011). While a wide variety of videos may exist for each sport, the top 50
videos for each sport selected for the sample would also be the first videos an average
YouTube user would see. These videos would reflect what YouTube deemed most
relevant for someone interested in videos about a particular sport. The search terms
‘slacklining’, ‘adventure racing’, ‘longboarding’, ‘cyclocross’, and ‘parkour’ were used
to gather the top videos for each sport. After compiling the sample videos, the researchers
conducted a pilot study with 20% of the videos (i.e., 10 randomly selected videos from
each sport, for 50 total videos) to assess the codebook’s effectiveness and increase
inter-rater reliability in the full sample. The researchers noted that some videos could

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T.Q. Mahoney et al.

have been classified into more than one category; however, they chose to categorise the
videos based on their primary message, rather than focusing on potential secondary or
tertiary messages. The four researchers reached 91.5% agreement, and discussed their
differences until they achieved 100% agreement. They also updated the codebook based
on their discussions, and the revised codebook was used for the subsequent study.

3.3 Data analysis
The four researchers independently coded the complete sample of 250 videos, including
the videos used in the pilot study. The videos were coded based on three criteria:
a

producer (Richardson et al., 2011)

b

premise (Hanson et al., 2011; Simonsen, 2011; Zimmerman et al., 2012)

c

PCM stage (Funk and James, 2001).

The producer category pertained to the source of the video, either official (e.g.,
corporations, governing bodies, sanctioned events) or unofficial (i.e., individuals,
amateurs, enthusiasts). The premise category examined the content of the video as
instructional (i.e., how-to videos, informational videos), promotional (i.e., event,
equipment, organisations/association), entertainment (i.e., showcasing the sport,
bloopers) and other (i.e., videos that did not fit into the prior categories).
The researchers also coded the videos as they related to the PCM stages – awareness
(realisation that a sport exists), attraction (preference for the sport), attachment
(emotional, symbolic and functional meaning of the sport) and allegiance (loyalty to the
sport). As previously mentioned, awareness is the lowest level of the PCM framework
and is the stage at which individuals first acknowledge the existence of a sport, team,
event or recreational activity (Funk, 2008; Funk and James, 2001, 2006). Videos
classified as awareness introduce viewers to the sport by highlighting the nature of the
sport and showcasing the skills of athletes participating in the sport. These videos provide
individuals with a basic understanding of the sport object.
Moving up the hierarchical gradient past awareness, the attraction stage represents an
individual’s increased connection to and preference for a sport (Funk, 2008; Funk and
James, 2001, 2006). Individuals in the attraction stage show an interest in and liking to
the sport, and typically seek more information about the sport and subculture in order to
determine if the activity will fulfil their needs (e.g., exercise, socialisation,
entertainment). Attraction stage videos target viewers who know the sport exists and seek
out videos that provide more information about the opportunities and benefits of the
sport. These videos may show viewers how to set up their equipment or review the
logistics for participating in a specific event.
One step past attraction on the continuum is attachment. Within this stage, individuals
exhibit a psychological connection, and place greater meaning on their affiliation to the
sport, whether as a spectator or participant (Funk, 2008; Funk and James, 2001, 2006).
Attachment stage videos tailor their messages to viewers who are already interested and
actively participate in a sport. These videos may demonstrate the features of new
equipment, or provide specific training tips and techniques for athletes of that particular
niche sport. The fourth and highest stage on the PCM is allegiance, or loyalty to the sport.

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

227

Individuals in this stage feel as though the sport is a part of who they are (Funk, 2008;
Funk and James, 2001, 2006). They are persistent in their spectatorship and/or
participation, and even let their connection with the sport guide their thinking and
decision-making behaviours. Allegiance stage videos target viewers who have a strong
psychological connection to a sport, and may include full-length coverage of related
sporting events most likely not broadcast via mainstream media outlets.
The researchers used Cohen’s kappa statistic in SPSS 20.0 to analyse intercoder
reliability for each of the coding mechanisms. The kappa values were as follows:
0.814 for producer, 0.906 for premise, and 0.827 for PCM stages. Kappa values greater
than 0.80 are deemed “acceptable in most situations” [Lombard et al., (2002), p.600], and
the minimum values were achieved across the three variables. For the remaining
differences, the researchers discussed their individual coding until 100% agreement was
reached.
Finally, the researchers completed a statistical analysis of the data using chi-square
analysis to assess the significance between frequencies in the three main variables (i.e.,
producer, premise and PCM stage). Cross-tabulation chi-square tests were also used to
assess potential differences in usage among the five niche sports. These tests are regularly
used with frequency data, and allow researchers to determine if there are significant
differences between observed and expected frequencies (Shavelson, 1996). Additionally,
the researchers examined descriptive statistics to further analyse the data and gain a better
understanding of where the significant differences existed.

4

Results

4.1 RQ1: who creates the emergent niche sport YouTube videos?
The researchers employed a cross-tabulation comparing producer categories, as well as
producer categories in relation to sport, premise and PCM stage. Chi-square results were
significant at the 0.05 level for all variables (p < 0.05). These included categories of
producer (i.e., official and unofficial) (χ2 = 18.50, df = 1, p < 0.001), sport (χ2 = 28.23,
df = 4, p < 0.001), premise (χ2 = 21.44, df = 7, p < 0.01) and PCM stage (χ2 = 9.27,
df = 3, p < 0.05).
Further examination of the frequencies aided the researchers to gain a better
understanding of where the significance existed. The descriptive statistics revealed
159 videos (64%) originated from an official source, whereas only 91 videos (36%) were
produced by unofficial sources (Table 1). The researchers also identified differences
across the sports (Table 2). Longboarding had the most videos produced from an official
source with 90% (n = 45) and only 10% from unofficial sources (n = 5). Adventure
racing also had the majority of its videos from official sources with 74% (n = 37)
categorised as official and 26% (n = 13) videos categorised as unofficial. Slacklining,
cyclocross and parkour had a more even distribution of videos from official and
unofficial sources. Slacklining had 56% (n = 28) of the videos produced by official
sources and 44% (n = 22) from unofficial sources. Similarly, cyclocross had 52%
(n = 26) official videos and 48% (n = 24) unofficial videos. Parkour was the only sport
with more unofficial videos (54%, n = 27) than official videos (46%, n = 23).

35
2
0

Attachment

Allegiance

Other
13

0
0

Bloopers

Attraction

3

1

Organisation

Best-of/docu

1

Equipment

9
34

Informational

Event

2

Awareness

PCM stage

Entertainment

Promotional

Instructional

How-to

13

Unofficial

Premise

37

Official

Producer

8

6

26

10

0

0

5

0

6

26

7

6

24

26

Cyclocross

2

4

9

35

1

0

37

1

4

2

2

3

5

45

Longboarding

3

1

13

33

4

2

27

3

0

1

1

12

27

23

Parkour

0

0

10

40

0

1

26

0

1

12

4

6

22

28

Slacklining

13

13

93

131

5

3

98

5

12

75

23

29

91

159

Total

5

101

92

52

Subtotal

Table 1

Adventure racing

228
T.Q. Mahoney et al.

Categorisation of videos by number

70%
4%
0%

Attachment

Allegiance

0%

Other
26%

0%

Bloopers

Attraction

6%

2%

Organisation

Best-of/docu

2%

Equipment

18%
68%

Informational

Event

4%

Awareness

PCM stage

Entertainment

Promotional

Instructional

How-to

Unofficial

Premise

74%
26%

Official

Adventure racing

16%

12%

52%

20%

0%

0%

10%

0%

12%

52%

14%

12%

48%

52%

Cyclocross

4%

8%

18%

70%

2%

0%

74%

2%

8%

4%

4%

6%

10%

90%

Longboarding

6%

2%

26%

66%

8%

4%

54%

6%

0%

2%

2%

24%

54%

46%

Parkour

0%

0%

20%

80%

0%

2%

52%

0%

2%

24%

8%

12%

44%

56%

Slacklining

5%

5%

37%

52%

2%

1%

39%

2%

5%

30%

9%

12%

36%

64%

Total

2%

40%

37%

21%

Subtotal

Table 2

Producer

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure
229

Categorisation of videos by percentage

230

T.Q. Mahoney et al.

4.2 RQ2: what is the primary message of the emergent niche sport videos?
Similar to the statistical methods used in research question number one, the researchers
examined potential significant differences in premise categories and those categories in
relation to producers, sports and stages of the PCM through cross-tabulation. Results of
the chi-square analysis revealed significant differences at the 0.01 level for all variables
(p < 0.01). These included categories of premise (e.g., instructional, promotional)
(χ2 = 287.66, df = 7, p < 0.001), producer (χ2 = 21.44, df = 4, p < 0.01), sports
(χ2 = 156.47, df = 28, p < 0.001) and PCM stage (χ2 = 205.13, df = 21, p < 0.001).
Further analysis of frequencies revealed entertainment was the most prevalent
category with 101 videos (40%). Best-of and documentary videos represented the vast
majority of videos in this category (n = 98) with a much smaller group of blooper videos
(n = 3). Promotional was the next most common category with 92 videos (37%). The
majority of these videos featured events (n = 75) as opposed to equipment (n = 12) and
organisations/associations (n = 5). Instructional was the least frequently occurring
category with 52 videos (21%). A relatively even split was found between how-to videos
(n = 29) and informational videos (n = 23). The other category contained five videos
(2%).
The premise of the videos differed among the sports. Longboarding was heavily
dominated by entertainment videos (74%, n = 37), followed by promotional (14%, n = 7),
instructional (10%, n = 5) and other (2%, n = 1). The majority of the parkour videos were
classified as entertainment (58%, n = 29); however, this sport also had instructional
videos (26%, n = 13). The remaining videos were split evenly between promotional and
other (8%, n = 4). Slacklining had a large percentage of entertainment videos (54%,
n = 27). The remaining videos were more evenly distributed between promotional (26%,
n = 13) and instructional (20%; n = 10). Whereas the majority of longboarding, parkour
and slacklining videos had an entertainment premise, promotional was the primary
premise found in the adventure racing and cyclocross videos. Adventure racing had
mostly promotional videos (72%, n = 36) and a much smaller number of instructional
(22%, n = 11) and entertainment videos (6%, n = 3). Similarly, cyclocross had a large
percentage of promotional videos (64%, n = 32) compared to its instructional (26%,
n = 13) and entertainment videos (10%, n = 5).

4.3 RQ3: what are the similarities and differences in PCM stages represented
among the five emergent niche sport videos?
The researchers also examined statistically significant differences between stages of the
PCM, and the relation to producer, sport, and premise through cross-tabulation. Results
of the chi-square analysis revealed significant differences at the 0.05 level for all
variables (p < 0.05). These included stages of the PCM (i.e., awareness, attraction,
attachment, allegiance) (χ2 = 168.37, df = 3, p < 0.001), producer (χ2 = 9.27, df = 3,
p < 0.05), sport (χ2 = 82.22, df = 12, p < 0.001) and premise (χ2 = 205.13, df = 21,
p < 0.001).
Coding for the PCM stages yielded 131 awareness videos (52%) and 93 attraction
videos (37%), with far fewer categorised as attachment or allegiance (26 videos, 10%).
The stages of the PCM were also different according to sport. Slacklining videos were
primarily classified in the awareness phase of the PCM (80%, n = 40), with the remaining
videos classified as attraction (20%, n = 10). Longboarding shared similar results with a

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

231

large percentage of awareness videos (70%, n = 35), and a much smaller percentage of
attraction (18%, n = 9), attachment (8%, n = 4) and allegiance videos (4%, n = 2).
Similarly, parkour had primarily awareness videos (66%, n = 33) along with attraction
(26%, n = 13), attachment (2%, n = 1) and allegiance (6%, n = 3). The sports of
adventure racing and cyclocross were mostly classified in the attraction phase. Adventure
racing had mostly attraction videos (70%, n = 35) versus awareness (26%, n = 13) and
attachment (4%, n = 2). Cyclocross had the most evenly distributed results across the four
categories with awareness (20%, n = 10), attraction (52%, n = 26), attachment (12%,
n = 6) and allegiance (16%, n = 8). Similar to the results of the premise of videos, the
sports of longboarding, parkour and slacklining were aligned together, and adventure
racing and cyclocross shared similar results.

5

Discussion

Social media platforms provide a unique way for sport organisations to directly reach
their customers worldwide through an interactive platform (Broughton, 2012; Waters and
Jones, 2012; Zimmerman et al., 2012). One of this study’s major findings is the
prevalence of videos produced by official sources (i.e., sport corporations, manufacturers
and event organisers). The frequency of such videos shows the importance sport
organisations place on using YouTube as a communication platform. Although industry
analysts have noted the underutilisation of sport organisations leveraging YouTube to
develop relationships with fans (Madkour, 2012), the findings from this study show
otherwise. The results provide evidence of five niche sports and their related sport
organisations using YouTube to reach and expand their fan base, while promoting their
products. Niche sports often receive limited attention and coverage from mass media
outlets (Puchan, 2004), and the organisations must find ways to differentiate and promote
their sponsorship, marketing and integrated communication strategies to manage media,
cost and time restraints (Greenhalgh et al., 2011). As a free and ubiquitous social media
platform, YouTube represents a cost-effective and meaningful way for niche sport
organisations to circumvent these restrictions.
In examining the premise category, the findings revealed the prevalence of
entertainment and promotional videos. As commonly seen in previous YouTube studies
(Hanson et al., 2011; Simonsen, 2011), many of the niche sport videos analysed in this
study were entertainment-based, including highlight films and documentaries about the
five sports. Beyond entertainment, the large number of promotional videos reflects an
opportunity for sport organisations to market their products and events. Emerging niche
sports in particular may find YouTube to be an effective non-traditional communication
platform to reach consumers and provide them with information about the sport
organisation itself, newly released products and upcoming events. Previous research
found increased accessibility and interaction between niche sport organisations and their
consumers could enhance sport consumption (Greenhalgh et al., 2011). Social media
platforms represent an ideal opportunity for niche sport organisations to disseminate
information (Richardson et al., 2011; Waters and Jones, 2011) and increase exposure
(Bennett et al., 2002; Miloch and Lambrecht, 2006). Providing consumers additional
information through creative videos may aid in developing deeper relationships,
encouraging attachment to the sport and movement up the PCM.

232

T.Q. Mahoney et al.

Finally, in relation to the PCM framework, a large percentage of the videos were
categorised as awareness, the stage when individuals are first exposed to the sport (Funk
and James, 2001). These results are consistent with Zimmerman et al. (2012), in that they
provide evidence that YouTube may be an efficient and effective platform for sport
organisations to promote events and increase awareness about their sports. Funk (2008)
noted that mass media and reference groups primarily influence the social learning
process and awareness of sport objects. Given the lack of mass media attention niche
sports receive (Greenhalgh et al., 2011; Puchan, 2004), organisations should focus on the
latter. Reference groups include family, work, friends, internet, celebrities and experts
(Funk, 2008). The interaction of reference groups through social media platforms, as well
as the internet itself, could provide individuals the opportunity for sport consumption
related activities. These platforms provide sport organisations an avenue to share videos
and other content with current and potential fans, while increasing and enhancing
awareness about their sport products.
YouTube provides an opportunity for organisations to not only raise awareness about
their sports, but also increase the level of commitment among those already attracted to
the sport. The niche sport organisations in this study frequently used promotional videos,
which could attract participants to their events. At the same time, highlight videos
featuring professionals using the sport specific products could reach consumers more
attached to the sport. Additionally, sport organisations could use YouTube to show
full-length events that are rarely broadcast via mainstream media, which could help niche
sport organisations target attached or allegiant fans that want to consume more of the
sport but face limited media options. Overall, YouTube may provide an effective means
for these sport organisations to reach new consumers and increase the bonds with existing
consumers.

5.1 Theoretical implications
From a theoretical perspective, this study was the first to use the PCM in a
communication context. The PCM has previously been used to identify the psychological
commitment of spectators (e.g., Funk et al., 2006, 2009) and participants (e.g., Filo et al.,
2008, 2009), yet to date no other study has used the framework in communications
research. Funk and James (2001) identified media as one of the main influences of an
individual’s exposure to a sport – particularly in the initial awareness stage. The current
study extended the use of the PCM to identify the levels of psychological commitment
reflected in YouTube videos – and how niche sport organisations can target fans in the
various psychological commitment stages through different videos.
Niche sport organisations typically do not have the opportunity to leverage
mainstream media outlets to engage current and new fans, and YouTube videos can help
these organisations increase their reach. The social media platform provides opportunities
for organisations to not only build content, but also connect with target markets through
specific content delivery. As the goal of niche sport organisations is to develop allegiance
among consumers, the interactive nature of YouTube can help move consumers up the
PCM gradient from the awareness stage toward allegiance.
Additionally, the results of this study confirm previous findings that the majority of
videos posted were officially produced (Richardson et al., 2011). YouTube provides a
cost-effective and efficient platform to disseminate information (Waters and Jones,
2011), market programmes and events (Greenhalgh et al., 2011) as well as promote

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

233

products of an organisation (Zimmerman et al., 2012). The prevalence of officially
produced videos also highlights that niche sport organisations recognise the power of
social media to reach their consumers. Previous niche sport researchers hypothesised that
the internet (Puchan, 2004) and various social media platforms (Greenhalgh et al., 2011)
could provide an avenue to build relationships with consumers, and the results of this
study confirm that notion. Niche sports such as longboarding contained 90% officially
produced videos. Longboard manufacturers such as Orangatang and original utilised
YouTube as a medium to not only promote their products but raise awareness and
attraction to the sport itself. Some niche sport organisations have embraced video
platforms such as YouTube, and leveraged content to build relationships with customers
and increase awareness of their sport. In conjunction with this use, YouTube has
witnessed a marked shift in produced content. The social media platform originated as a
place for individuals to post videos, mostly for entertainment purposes. As the site
reached greater popularity levels, organisations began to recognise the opportunity to
provide videos and reach their customers in a different way.

5.2 Practical implications
Although industry analysts have noted that many sport entities have yet to effectively
harness the power of YouTube (Madkour, 2012), other organisations have seen success.
Niche sport sponsor and energy drink manufacturer Red Bull is one such company
(Madkour, 2012). In 2012, Red Bull invested $65 million into a special event, Red Bull
Stratos. The company’s marketing strategy emphasises pushing physical limits. The event
featured Red Bull-sponsored athlete Felix Baumgartner, who became the first person to
break the sound barrier, freefalling from 128,100 feet above Earth and travelling at
834 miles per hour (Red Bull Stratos, 2012). Red Bull staged the event, produced the
content and distributed it through various media channels, including a live broadcast on
YouTube (Red Bull Invests, 2012). The event’s YouTube channel recorded more than
340 million views in the hours prior to the jump with eight million concurrent live
streams as the event unfolded. Prior to the Stratos mission, the highest number of
simultaneous YouTube views recorded was 500,000, which occurred during the 2012
Summer Olympic Games in London.
Red Bull capitalised on a trend that emerged in social networks over the past decade
(‘Red Bull invests $65 million on space jump as more than 8 million watch on YouTube’,
2012). Similarly, the National Lacrosse League (NLL) will broadcast its entire 2013
season on YouTube in order to showcase the sport to an international audience and grow
the fan base (NLL.com, 2012). The social media platform will provide access to
otherwise unseen games for fans around the world, while potentially developing
relationships with new sport consumers. Other sports organisations, including the ones
featured in this study, have used YouTube as a mechanism to reach and attract
consumers.
Yet even with these documented successes, many managers still struggle with fully
accepting social media due to the lack of control they have over the message (Bernoff
and Li, 2008). YouTube may represent one way for organisations to produce and
disseminate content, thereby better controlling the message. In line with officially
produced content, YouTube provides a vehicle for niche sport organisations to promote
their equipment, event or organisation without using traditional advertisements. Many of

234

T.Q. Mahoney et al.

the highlight films in this study featured professional athletes showcasing their skills in
the sport. The primary premise of the video was to highlight the talents of the
professional; however, many of the officially produced videos also featured the newest
equipment. In this way, organisations can promote their sport and equipment without
using traditional advertisements, which many consumers view sceptically (Bernoff and
Li, 2008).
Niche sport organisations can also use YouTube to strengthen the community around
their sports. By their nature, many niche sports breed a sense of community (Puchan,
2004). Since the media coverage, sponsorship opportunities and sometimes the sports
themselves are less mainstream than traditional sports, many niche sport participants and
spectators seek out alternative ways to build community and receive content through
other outlets. YouTube can provide a space for individuals with similar interests to
interact and form virtual communities – and a place where niche sport organisations can
facilitate this conversation. Puchan (2004) noted that the internet was particularly
important for fans of niche sports to interact. Related sport organisations can create
YouTube channels and videos, and then encourage fans to watch and comment on the
videos. Some manufacturers in this study participated in the discussion unfolding around
their videos via each video’s comment section. Users posted questions, and the video
producers responded with feedback, advice and other comments. This interaction allows
organisations to develop stronger connections with consumers – and perhaps encourage
them to move up the PCM hierarchy as they embrace the sport and related products.
Additionally, sport managers should highlight the unique content provided to users
through YouTube videos and channels. Social media platforms provide users with
unprecedented access to the sport organisations and athletes they admire (Hambrick et al.,
2010). YouTube provides a vehicle to leverage behind the scenes access and information
not typically covered through traditional media. The study provided examples of creative
YouTube uses. Sport managers are encouraged to regularly visit YouTube to view
organisational best practices (and potentially practices to avoid) as they develop and
promote their own content.

6

Limitations and future research

This study is not without limitations. First, the generalisability of the results may be
limited. This study examined the use of YouTube among five emergent niche sports.
Although there were common themes found among the videos and across the sports, a
further examination of other niche and mainstream sports could provide beneficial
information to sport managers. Second, some of the videos could be classified into one or
more of the premise or PCM stages depending on the type of user viewing the video.
Future research could survey participants based on their prior knowledge and stage of the
PCM with the sport as well as their reaction to the videos. Third, the study only examined
niche sport content featured on YouTube. Social media options continue to grow, and
other outlets such as Pinterest, Instagram and Vine may represent suitable platforms for
future studies.

Examining emergent niche sports’ YouTube exposure

7

235

Conclusions

The emergence of Web 2.0 technologies has transformed online communication. The
popularity and interactive nature of online communities such as YouTube provide
cost-effective opportunities for niche sport organisations to attract and retain consumers.
YouTube combines media with social networking, and provides organisations with a
greater degree of control over their messages compared to more traditional media outlets.
These social media platforms provide unique opportunities for organisations to engage in
interactive communication with consumers. The findings of this study highlight the
increasingly popular use of online videos as a tool for communication by niche sport
organisations. Although many longboarding, parkour, and slacklining videos were
categorised as primarily entertainment, the researchers found a considerable amount of
promotional videos among other emergent niche sports, specifically adventure racing and
cyclocross. These findings show the importance of examining not only differences
between niche and mainstream sports, but also potential differences between different
types of niche and emergent niche sports.
This was also the first study to apply the PCM to a sport communication context.
Overall, the majority of emergent niche sport videos were categorised as awareness,
which supported previous research suggesting the potential of YouTube as a tool for
promoting niche sports. In addition, a substantial amount of videos were also found to
correspond with the attraction stage, especially in adventure racing and cyclocross,
indicating online video platforms may provide opportunities to move consumers along
the levels of the PCM. The findings of this study highlight the potential role of YouTube
as a cost-effective tool for niche sport organisations to attract and retain consumers,
primarily through increased awareness and attraction. Further studies are needed to
develop a deeper understanding of how niche sport organisations should use YouTube for
online communication.

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